Which of these concepts is primarily associated with observational learning?

Observational learning is a process where individuals learn by watching the behavior of others and the consequences that result from those behaviors. This type of learning is primarily associated with the concept of modeling.

Modeling involves the imitation of behaviors observed in others, typically referred to as models. When an individual observes a model performing a certain action, the learner can acquire new behaviors or information simply by observing. This is effectively a cornerstone of Bandura's social learning theory, which emphasizes how observation and imitation play crucial roles in learning.

The other concepts, while important in their respective contexts, do not directly tie to the essence of observational learning. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations, which is more related to personal beliefs rather than observation. Falsifiability pertains to the scientific principle that a hypothesis must be able to be tested and potentially proven false, and is more concerned with the nature of scientific inquiry rather than learning processes. Irreversibility, commonly associated with certain cognitive developments, describes a stage where certain actions or processes cannot be undone, and does not pertain to how learning occurs through observation.

Overall, modeling is the core of observational learning, making it the correct association in this context.